Gambling with the East, Challenging the Liberal Order: Hungary and Serbia Contesting European Union Normativity

The 16+1 forum can be observed as a dual challenge to the Liberal Order. We argue that the EU is both an outcome and representation of the Liberal Order in normative terms, as a winner of the Cold war whose norms have extended to former communist countries. Such EU norms as free movement of people and capitals are tenets of the liberal thought and pillars of the Liberal Order. From within, dissatisfied European actors leverage their partnership with China to contest EU norms; from the outside 16+1 is seen as China’s attempt to ‘di-vide and conquer’ (prospective) EU states. We observe this process through Chinese investments in selected 16+1 countries: Hungary and Serbia. Applying Speech Act Theory, we find that 16+1 has raised concern among EU policymakers, despite scarce economic results, because it has been used as a discursive leverage by both China and Eastern European countries against the EU.